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3D Bioprinting… in SPACE!

November 22, 2024

When it comes to the exploration of space, we, as human beings, are very limited in how much our bodies can handle. Studies done from the International Space Station (ISS) show that being in space and being exposed to microgravity can have detrimental impacts on your physical health the longer you are there (Sarabi et al., 2023). However, recent discoveries towards the benefits of 3D bioprinting in space point to a future where we can explore other planets by sending humans to them and creating a series of colonies that do not have to rely entirely on imports from Earth.

To better understand this phenomenon, it’s best to first provide the definition of bioprinting. According to the journal from MDPI titled, An Introduction to 3D Bioprinting: Possibilities, Challenges, and Future Aspects, bioprinting is defined as, “the printing of structures using viable cells, biomaterials, and biological molecules” (Kačarević, et al., 2018). A lot of bioprinting research has been towards the printing of delicate organs and other organic material in order to advance the medical field. The main hindrance of bioprinting on Earth is the need of a scaffolding, something to hold the printed biomaterials in place to create more complex structures. When it comes to bioprinting in space, however, it was realized that printing in microgravity removes the necessity for a scaffolding because there are no/minimal external forces being applied to the structure.

As exciting as that sounds, it is necessary to account for the feasibility of certain operations. For example, the cost to bring a 3D bioprinter to space would range between $41,400-$295,800 depending on its weight, and that’s without accounting for a human operator, which would increase the range to be between $136,400-$545,800. It’s also important to consider how microgravity might affect the performance of bioprinters. The main concern would be that the printer nozzle would be damaged, making it incredibly difficult to fix in space; however, this will not be a necessary concern. Extrusion-based bioprinting has become the most popular form of bioprinting, and it does not have such issues and is highly repeatable (Sarabi et al., 2023).

After accounting for factors of feasibility such as cost and performance, the journal from ACS discusses the incredibly strong possibility that bringing tissue chips as space biomedicine can help heal astronauts in the future when they are exploring exoplanets or even starting a colony on Mars. From the same journal, it talks about how microgravity can affect the blood flow, stem cell differentiation, and even the gene regulation of the humans who stay in its strange circumstances too long. It even threatens the ability of someone to remain in homeostasis and regenerate tissue (Sarabi et al., 2023).

If we were to successfully 3D bioprint complex structures and organs, we would be able to embark on extraordinarily long expeditions into the far reaches of space, and also, we would be able to print our own materials without having to solely rely on infrastructure and materials from our home base of Earth.

While this technology still has a long way to go, many studies are already being conducted on the ISS to better this technology and explore its abilities in microgravity (Love, 2023). There are even prospects of potentially creating microgravity laboratories that can orbit Earth to create organs and that are hosted by artificial intelligence (AI), allowing for a faster development time without needing a human on the satellite (Sarabi et al., 2023). The future is bright with bioprinting and our potential for exploring the universe grows exponentially with its existence.

 

References

Sarabi, M., Yetisen, A., & Tasoglu, S. (2023, May 8). Bioprinting in Microgravity. American Chemical Society. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10265578/

Kačarević, Ž., Rider, P., Alkildani, S., Retnasingh, S., Smeets, R., Jung, O., Ivaniševic, Z., & Barbeck, M. (2018, November 6). An Introduction to 3D Bioprinting: Possibilities, Challenges, and Future Aspects. MDPI. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6266989/

Love, J. (2023, December 20). 3D Bioprinting. NASA. https://www.nasa.gov/missions/station/iss-research/3d-bioprinting/

[NASA astronaut Jasmin Moghbeli swaps components inside the BioFabrication Facility (BFF)]. NASA.

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  Timothy Durham was convicted of rape when a test showed his DNA genotype matched the DNA recovered from the crime scene. Eye witnesses testified that Durham was in a different state at the time of the incident, but he wasn’t exonerated from his 3000 year sentence until follow up DNA analysis showed that the preliminary forensic analysis used in the trial was misinterpreted (Thomas et al.). DNA testing serves an invaluable part in our criminal justice system, but it comes with complications and bias that can lead to wrongful convictions and misinformed juries.  

Background:

Forensic genetics aims to identify the origin of a biological sample. It can be traced back to Karl Landsteiner who discovered human ABO blood groups. With blood groups, suspects could be eliminated based on their blood type. For example, if a suspect had type A blood and there was type B blood left at the scene by the perpetrator, the investigators could rule out the suspect. Unfortunately, the reverse didn’t work. If the suspect and perpetrator both had the same blood type, it can’t be concluded that the suspect was guilty. Blood identifiers evolved into 8 distinct categories which improved the ability to eliminate suspects, but could only conclude that (if the system matched) it might be the perpetrator or this person might be related to the perpetrator (Jobling and Gill). The field evolved in the 1980s with the discovery of Minisatellites, lines of repetitive DNA that don’t encode proteins. Minisatellite patterns in DNA create what we know today as the DNA fingerprint, and it has a much higher accuracy rate than previous methods (Augustyn et al.). Around the same time, a breakthrough for victims of sexual assault was discovered. In the case of assault, bodily fluids of both the victim and the assaulter can get mixed. A process called differential lysis was created which could selectively increase the concentration of sperm in a fluid sample thereby allowing for accurate DNA testing (Jobling and Gill). Forensics evolved to use single-locus probe testing after several years because of its ease of interpretation. It looked at specific minisatellites that had high variability between subjects. This was the first DNA-based method to be used in a criminal investigation. Two murder homicides from several years apart were connected using DNA evidence. The evidence was then used to exonerate an innocent man, and the guilty party was found when he tried to evade mandatory DNA testing for all men in the small town. His guilt was then reinforced when the DNA profiles matched, and he gave a confession (Jobling and Gill). Finding DNA at a crime scene doesn’t guarantee that you’ll find a murderer. There are issues with non-pure samples and limited samples that make DNA work difficult, and accreditation of facilities and new techniques and take time (Jobling and Gill).  

Subjectivity of DNA Interpretation:

In a 2009 publication, the National Academy of Science discusses the possibility for subjective influence in lab based forensics. The interpretation bias happens in complex cases where, for example, there could be a mixture of DNA. A study published in 2011 looked specifically at this issue. A gang rape happened in Georgia, and the mixture in DNA from the case was used to prosecute one suspect after another suspect took a plea bargain to testify against him. With DNA mixtures, there are three possible conclusions: suspect excluded, suspect cannot be excluded, and inconclusive. If the suspect is excluded, it means that there’s little to no possibility that his DNA is part of the sample. If the suspect cannot be excluded, it means that there’s a possibility that his DNA is part of the sample. In the trial, the DNA examiners who knew the context of the case concluded that the suspect being prosecuted could not be excluded. The 2011 study gave the DNA evidence from this case and the DNA profiles of the suspects to 17 forensic examiners. These examiners had no context of the case, and they all worked independently. Of the 17, only 1 came to the same conclusion (suspect cannot be excluded) as the examiners who knew the context of the case. Twelve of the 17 concluded that the suspect who was prosecuted and convicted had no relation to the DNA found in the sample. Not only does this show that subjectivity occurs due to the context of the case, but the 17 examiners came up with different findings based on their past experiences meaning that not all DNA analysis is objective. Some organizations like the Scientific Working Group on DNA Analysis Methods say that quantitative statistical evidence should be presented with every categorical conclusion, but the US doesn’t require this (Dror and Hampikian).

False Positives:

There are two categories that cause wrongful identification in a DNA report: coincidental matches and false positives. Coincidental matches are DNA matches between two unrelated people. The probability of these matches is about 1 to 500,000 for white individuals and about 1 to 350,000 for black individuals. This small probability of coincidental matches makes people feel confident in DNA evidence. False positives, on the other hand, are matches between DNA and test DNA that result from issues in the forensics lab. There have been multiple cases of forensics labs accidentally switching victim and suspected rapist DNA which lead to convictions that were later overturned when the lab realized the error. There are also cases of misreading or misunderstanding a sample. In a case from 1993, a man was convicted of rape because someone interpreted a mixed sample of victim and perpetrator DNA as an individual sample. The conviction was again overturned. To prevent false convictions, retesting DNA is allowed, but it’s not an efficient solution. Many people are pushing for statistical information on the probability of false positives, so that the jurors can make accurate judgements based on DNA evidence (Thomas et al.).  

Conclusion:

DNA analysis is a useful tool for the criminal justice system, but subjectivity can be an issue in forensic testing. To combat wrongful convictions, there are organizations like The Innocence Project who use DNA testing to free the innocent, but reformed forensic testing standards should be put in place to prevent subjectivity and to ensure juries are correctly informed during trials. https://www.innocenceproject.org/    

Citation:

Augustyn , Adam, et al. “DNA Finerprinting.” Encyclopedia Britannica , 26 Apr. 2018, www.britannica.com/science/DNA-fingerprinting#ref153186. Dror, Itiel E., and Greg Hampikian. “Subjectivity and Bias in Forensic DNA Mixture Interpretation.” Science & Justice, vol. 51, no. 4, 2011, pp. 204–208., doi:10.1016/j.scijus.2011.08.004. Jobling, Mark A., and Peter Gill. “Encoded Evidence: DNA in Forensic Analysis.” Nature Reviews: Genetics, vol. 5, no. 10, Oct. 2004, pp. 739–751., doi:10.1038/nrg1455. Thompson, William C, et al. “How the Probability of a False Positive Affects the Value of DNA Evidence.” Journal of Forensic Sciences, vol. 48, no. 1, Jan. 2003, pp. 1–8., doi:10.1520/jfs2001171.